Age-period-cohort effects on incidence trends of childhood leukemia from four population-based cancer registries in Colombia.

BACKGROUND: Childhood leukemia (CL) is the most prevalent form of pediatric cancer on a global scale. However, there is a limited understanding of the dynamics of CL incidence in South America, with a specific knowledge gap in Colombia. This study aimed to identify trends in CL incidence and to analyze the effects of age, period, and birth cohort on the risk of leukemia incidence in this population. METHODS: Information on all newly diagnosed leukemia cases (in general and by subtype) among residents aged 0-18 years and living in the serving areas of population-based cancer registries of Cali (2008-2017), Bucaramanga (2000-2017), Manizales (2003-2017), and Pasto (1998-2018). Estimated annual percent changes (EAPC) in incidence over time and potential changes in the slope of these EAPCs were calculated using joinpoint regression models. The effects of age, period, and cohort in CL incidence trends were evaluated using age-period-cohort models addressing the identifiability issue through the application of double differences. RESULTS: A total of 966 childhood leukemia cases were identified. The average standardized incidence rate (ASIR) of leukemia was calculated and expressed per 100,000 person-years - observing ASIR of 4.46 in Cali, 7.27 in Bucaramanga, 3.89 in Manizales and 4.06 in Pasto. Concerning CL trends there were no statistically significant changes in EAPC throughout the different periods, however, when analyzed by leukemia subtype, statistically significant changes were observed in the EAPC for both ALL and AML. Analysis of age-period-cohort models revealed that age-related factors significantly underpin the incidence trends of childhood leukemia in these four Colombian cities. CONCLUSIONS: This study offers valuable insights into the incidence trends of childhood leukemia in four major Colombian cities. The analysis revealed stable overall CL incidence rates across varying periods, predominantly influenced by age-related factors and the absence of cohort and period effects. This information is useful for surveillance and planning purposes for CL diagnosis and treatment in Colombia.

Descriptive Epidemiology of Melanoma Diagnosed between 2010 and 2014 in a Colombian Cancer Registry and a Call for Improving Available Data on Melanoma in Latin America.

We aimed to improve the available information on morphology and stage for cutaneous melanoma in the population-based cancer registry of the Bucaramanga Metropolitan Area in Colombia. The incidence and survival rates and the distribution of melanoma patients by age, gender, anatomical subsite, and histological subtype were calculated. All 113 melanoma patients (median age 61) were followed up (median time 7.4 years). This exercise (filling in missing information in the registry by manual search of patient clinical record and other available information) yielded more identified invasive melanomas and cases with complete information on anatomical localization and stage. Age-standardized incidence and mortality rates were 1.86 and 1.08, being slightly higher for males. Most melanomas were localized on the lower limbs, followed by the trunk. For 35% of all melanomas, the morphological subtype remained unknown. Most of the remaining melanomas were nodular and acral lentiginous melanomas. Overall global and relative 5-year survival was 61.6% and 71.3%, respectively, with poorer survival for males than females. Melanomas on the head and neck and unspecified anatomical sites had the worst survival. Patients without stage information in their medical files had excellent survival, unlike patients for whom medical files were no longer available. This study shows the possibility of improving data availability and the importance of good quality population-based data.

Prevalence of BRCA1 and BRCA2 Germline Mutations in Patients of African Descent with Early-Onset and Familial Colombian Breast Cancer.

BACKGROUND: Pathogenic germline mutations in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 (BRCA1/2) genes contribute to hereditary breast/ovarian cancer (OC) in White/mestizo Colombian women. As there is virtually no genetic data on breast cancer (BC) in Colombians of African descent, we conducted a comprehensive BRCA1/2 mutational analysis of 60 Afro-Colombian families affected by breast/OC. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Mutation screening of the complete BRCA1/2 genes for small-scale mutations and large genomic alterations was performed in these families using next-generation sequencing and multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification analysis. RESULTS: Four pathogenic germline mutations, including one novel mutation, were identified, comprising 3 in BRCA1 and one in BRCA2. The prevalence of BRCA1/2 mutations, including one BRCA1 founder mutation (c.5123C>A) previously identified in this sample set, was 3.9% (2/51) in female BC-affected families and 33.3% (3/9) in those affected by both breast and OC. Haplotype analysis of 2 BRCA2_c.2701delC carriers (one Afro-Colombian and one previously identified White/mestizo Colombian patient with BC) suggested that the mutation arose in a common ancestor. CONCLUSION: Our data showed that 2/5 (40%) mutations (including the one previously identified in this sample set) are shared by White/mestizo Colombian and Afro-Colombian populations. This suggests that these 2 populations are closely related. Nevertheless, variations in the BRCA1/2 mutational spectrum among Afro-Colombian subgroups from different regions of the country were observed, suggesting that specific genetic risk assessment strategies need to be developed.

Impact of the Management and Proportion of Lost to Follow-Up Cases on Cancer Survival Estimates for Small Population-Based Cancer Registries.

BACKGROUND: Estimation of survival requires follow-up of patients from diagnosis until death ensuring complete and good quality data. Many population-based cancer registries in low- and middle-income countries have difficulties linking registry data with regional or national vital statistics, increasing the chances of cases lost to follow-up. The impact of lost to follow-up cases on survival estimates from small population-based cancer registries (<500 cases) has been understudied, and bias could be larger than in larger registries. METHODS: We simulated scenarios based on idealized real data from three population-based cancer registries to assess the impact of loss to follow-up on 1-5-year overall and net survival for stomach, colon, and thyroid cancers-cancer types with very different prognosis. Multiple scenarios with varying of lost to follow-up proportions (1-20%) and sample sizes of (100-500 cases) were carried out. We investigated the impact of excluding versus censoring lost to follow-up cases; punctual and bootstrap confidence intervals for the average bias are presented. RESULTS: Censoring of lost to follow-up cases lead to overestimation of the overall survival, this effect was strongest for cancers with a poor prognosis and increased with follow-up time and higher proportion of lost to follow-up cases; these effects were slightly larger for net survival than overall survival. Excluding cases lost to follow-up did not generate a bias on survival estimates on average, but in individual cases, there were under- and overestimating survival. For gastric, colon, and thyroid cancer, relative bias on 5-year cancer survival with 1% of lost to follow-up varied between 6% and 125%, 2% and 40%, and 0.1% and 1.0%, respectively. CONCLUSION: Estimation of cancer survival from small population-based registries must be interpreted with caution: even small proportions of censoring, or excluding lost to follow-up cases can inflate survival, making it hard to interpret comparison across regions or countries.

Plan de seguro de salud: factor que más contribuye a las desigualdades en la mortalidad por COVID-19 en Colombia / Health insurance scheme: main contributor to inequalities in COVID-19 mortality in Colombia / Tipo de cobertura de assistência à saúde: o principal fator contribuinte para as desigualdades em mortalidade por COVID-19 na Colômbia

RESUMEN Objetivo. Cuantificar las desigualdades socioeconómicas en la mortalidad por COVID-19 en Colombia y evaluar en qué medida el tipo de seguro de salud, la carga de enfermedades concomitantes, la zona de residencia y el origen étnico explican estas desigualdades. Métodos. Se analizaron los datos de una cohorte retrospectiva de casos de COVID-19. Se estimó el índice relativo de desigualdad (IRD) y el índice de desigualdad basado en la pendiente (IDP) utilizando modelos de supervivencia con todos los participantes, y estratificándolos por edad y sexo. El porcentaje de reducción del IRD y el IDP se calculó después de ajustar con respecto a factores que podrían ser relevantes. Resultados. Se pusieron en evidencia desigualdades notables en toda la cohorte y en los subgrupos (edad y sexo). Las desigualdades fueron mayores en los adultos más jóvenes y disminuyeron de manera gradual con la edad, pasando de un IRD de 5,65 (intervalo de confianza de 95% [IC 95%] = 3,25-9,82) en los participantes menores de 25 años a un IRD de 1,49 (IC 95% = 1,41-1,58) en los mayores de 65 años. El tipo de seguro de salud fue el factor más importante, al cual se atribuyó 20% de las desigualdades relativas y 59% de las absolutas. Conclusiones. La mortalidad por COVID-19 en Colombia presenta importantes desigualdades socioeconómicas. El seguro de salud aparece como el factor que más contribuye a estas desigualdades, lo cual plantea retos al diseño de las estrategias de salud pública.

ABSTRACT Objectives. To quantify socioeconomic inequalities in COVID-19 mortality in Colombia and to assess the extent to which type of health insurance, comorbidity burden, area of residence, and ethnicity account for such inequalities. Methods. We analyzed data from a retrospective cohort of COVID-19 cases. We estimated the relative and slope indices of inequality (RII and SII) using survival models for all participants and stratified them by age and gender. We calculated the percentage reduction in RII and SII after adjustment for potentially relevant factors. Results. We identified significant inequalities for the whole cohort and by subgroups (age and gender). Inequalities were higher among younger adults and gradually decreased with age, going from RII of 5.65 (95% confidence interval [CI] = 3.25, 9.82) in participants younger than 25 years to RII of 1.49 (95% CI = 1.41, 1.58) in those aged 65 years and older. Type of health insurance was the most important factor, accounting for 20% and 59% of the relative and absolute inequalities, respectively. Conclusions. Significant socioeconomic inequalities exist in COVID-19 mortality in Colombia. Health insurance appears to be the main contributor to those inequalities, posing challenges for the design of public health strategies.

RESUMO Objetivos. Quantificar as desigualdades socioeconômicas na mortalidade por COVID-19 na Colômbia e avaliar até que ponto o tipo de cobertura de assistência à saúde, a carga de comorbidades, o local de residência e a etnia contribuíram para tais desigualdades. Métodos. Analisamos dados de uma coorte retrospectiva de casos de COVID-19. Calculamos os índices relativo e angular de desigualdade (RII e SII, respectivamente) utilizando modelos de sobrevivência em todos os participantes, estratificando-os por idade e gênero. Calculamos o percentual de redução no RII e no SII após ajuste para fatores possivelmente relevantes. Resultados. Identificamos desigualdades significativas na coorte como um todo e por subgrupos (idade e gênero). As desigualdades foram maiores para adultos mais jovens e decaíram gradualmente com a idade, indo de um RII de 5,65 (intervalo de confiança [IC] de 95% = 3,25; 9,82] nos participantes com idade inferior a 25 anos a um RII de 1,49 [IC 95% = 1,41; 1,58] nas pessoas com 65 anos ou mais. O tipo de cobertura de assistência à saúde foi o fator mais importante, representando 20% e 59% das desigualdades relativa e absoluta, respectivamente. Conclusões. Desigualdades socioeconômicas significativas afetaram a mortalidade por COVID-19 na Colômbia. O tipo de cobertura de saúde parece ser o principal fator contribuinte para essas desigualdades, impondo desafios à elaboração de estratégias de saúde pública.

How many people need palliative care for cancer and non-cancer diseases in a middle-income country? Analysis of mortality data / ¿Cuántas personas requieren cuidados paliativos para enfermedades oncológicas y no oncológicas en un país de ingresos medios? Análisis de datos de mortalidad

Abstract Introduction: Aging of the population and the accompanying increase in prevalence of chronic illnesses mean that more people will need palliative care. This need has not been extensively quantified in middle-income countries to policy planning and expanding health care. Objective: Provide an estimate of the need of palliative care services in Colombia and compare these needs with the current available offer. Methods: Cross-sectional study based on mortality statistics for Colombia for the period 2012 to 2016. We calculated age-specific and sex-specific numbers of deaths and mortality rates from death certificate for defined chronic illnesses to estimate the prevalence of palliative care need in Colombia, and contrasted this information with the current offer according to the Colombian Observatory of Palliative Care. Results: The numbers of deaths requiring palliative care increased from 107,065 in 2012 to 128,670 in 2016 (61.2% of total deaths). The causes of these deaths vary by age group, with a clearly more important proportion of heart and cerebrovascular diseases and dementia in advances ages, and HIV/AIDS in young ages. In all age groups, malignant neoplasms are an important part of the causes of deaths of those requiring palliative care (31.3% of all deaths in 2016). Contrasting this needs, in most areas there is no or very limited offer of palliative care services. Conclusion: A real palliative care policy, including a vast increase in training opportunities in the field and regulation allowing a wide range of health practitioners to be involved in palliative care, is necessary in Colombia to improve the palliative care offer.

Resumen Introducción: El envejecimiento de la población y el consecuente aumento en la prevalencia de enfermedades crónicas implica que habrá más personas que necesitarán cuidados paliativos. Esta necesidad no se ha cuantificado mayormente en los países de medianos ingresos con miras a la planificación de políticas y a la ampliación de la atención en salud. Objetivo: Ofrecer un estimado de la necesidad de servicios de cuidados paliativos en Colombia y comparar dichas necesidades con la oferta disponible en la actualidad. Métodos: Estudio transversal basado en estadísticas de mortalidad en Colombia para el periodo comprendido entre 2012-2016. Calculamos las cifras de muertes y tasas de mortalidad específicas por edad y sexo a partir de los certificados de defunción correspondientes a enfermedades crónicas definidas, a _n de estimar la prevalencia de la necesidad de cuidados paliativos en Colombia, y se comparó dicha información con la oferta actual, de acuerdo con el Observatorio Colombiano de Cuidados Paliativos. Resultados: Las cifras correspondientes a muertes que requirieron cuidados paliativos aumentaron de 107 065 en el 2012 a 128 670 en el 2016 (61.2% del total de muertes). Las causas de estas muertes varían según el grupo etario, con un porcentaje evidentemente mayor de enfermedades cardiacas, cerebrovasculares y demencia en edades avanzadas, y VIH/SIDA en los grupos más jóvenes. En todos los grupos etarios, las neoplasias malignas son una parte importante de las causas de muerte de quienes requieren cuidados paliativos (31.3% de todas las muertes en el 2016). Estas necesidades contrastan con el hecho de que en la mayoría de las áreas no existen servicios de cuidados paliativos, o su oferta es muy limitada. Conclusiones: En Colombia se necesita una verdadera política de cuidados paliativos, incluyendo un aumento significativo de las oportunidades de capacitación en el área, así como un marco regulatorio que permita que una amplia gama de profesionales de la salud participen en cuidados paliativos, a in de mejorar la oferta de estos servicios.

Características biopsicosociales relacionadas con el consumo de cigarrillo y la intención de cesación en fumadores en un entorno universitario / Biopsychosocial characteristics related to smoking and cessation intention among smokers in a university environment

Resumen Introducción. El tratamiento de la dependencia tabáquica requiere la comprensión de múltiples factores que determinan los patrones de consumo y la posibilidad de lograr un cambio conductual. Objetivo. Establecer las características biopsicosociales asociadas con el consumo de cigarrillo y la intención de cesación de los usuarios de un programa interdisciplinario para dejar de fumar en un entorno universitario. Materiales y métodos. Estudio descriptivo transversal. Se revisaron las historias clínicas de 134 usuarios del programa que completaron la fase de evaluación. Resultados. 56.7% de los participantes presentó un grado leve de tabaquismo; además, 67.2% tuvo una baja dependencia a la nicotina. Se encontró una tamización positiva para ansiedad y depresión en el 62.7% y 34.3% de la muestra, respectivamente. La mayoría de sujetos tenía por lo menos un amigo fumador (91%) (n=122) y había realizado al menos un intento previo de cesación (85.1%) (n=114); los individuos con riesgo de desarrollar ansiedad presentaron un mayor consumo diario de cigarrillos (Kruskal-Wallis p=0.041) que aquellos que no estaban en riesgo. Conclusiones. Diferentes aspectos personales, familiares y contextuales determinan la posibilidad de iniciar, continuar y/o recaer en el consumo de cigarrillos, por lo que la implementación de intervenciones efectivas exige la comprensión integral de los factores implicados en su consumo y en la intención de cesación.

Abstract Introduction: The treatment of tobacco dependence requires understanding multiple factors that determine consumption patterns and the possibility of achieving behavioral change. Objective: To establish the biopsychosocial characteristics associated with smoking and the intention of quitting in users of an interdisciplinary smoking cessation program in a university setting. Materials and methods: Cross-sectional descriptive study. The medical records of 134 program users who completed the evaluation phase were reviewed. Results: 56.7% of the participants presented a slight degree of tobacco consumption; moreover, 67.2% had a low level of physical dependence on nicotine. Positive screening for anxiety and depression was found in 62.7% and 34.3% of the sample, respectively. Most of the participants had at least one smoker friend (91%) and had made at least one previous cessation attempt (85.1%). Individuals at risk of developing anxiety smoked more cigarettes per day (Kruskal-Wallis p=0.041) than those who were not at risk. Conclusions: Multiple personal, family and environmental aspects determine the possibility of initiating, maintaining and/or relapsing into cigarette consumption. Thus, the implementation of effective interventions requires a comprehensive understanding of the factors associated with smoking and the intention to quit smoking.

Importancia del acceso de los registros de cáncer de base poblacional a las estadísticas vitales: barreras identificadas en Colombia / Importance of access of population-based cancer registries to vital statistics: barriers identified in Colombia

Resumen Los registros de cáncer de base poblacional (RCBP) son los responsables del reporte de incidencia, mortalidad y supervivencia de los pacientes con cáncer para sus respectivas poblaciones. Los RCBP del país son definidos por la legislación colombiana como fuentes de información de los registros nacionales de cáncer para adultos y niños, pero carecen de un soporte jurídico que permita el acceso a las fuentes oficiales de información nacional y enfrentan restricciones dadas por la ley para el tratamiento de datos personales que impide la transferencia de información de los registros nacionales de cáncer y todas sus fuentes hacia los RCBP. Se analizarán los problemas de acceso a la información de estadísticas vitales del país, así como las consecuencias de estas barreras de acceso para los RCBP, y se presentarán argumentos que sustenten la necesidad de que los RCBP puedan acceder a la información necesaria para poder cumplir su objetivo.

Abstract Population-based cancer registries (PBCR) are responsible for reporting incidence, mortality and survival for cancer patients in their respective populations. Colombian legislation assigned the PBCR as sources of information for the national observatory on cancer. However, the PBCR lack legal support that officially assures access to official sources of national vital statistics and information on healthcare consumption; they face restrictions provided by law for the processing of personal data that prevents the transfer of information from national cancer databases and all their sources to the PBCR. We provide analysis of the problems of access to information on vital statistics of the country and the consequences of these access barriers for the PBCR, the presented arguments illustrate the need for the PBCR to have a smooth access to such information to be able to comply with their objectives.

Low Prevalence of the Four Common Colombian Founder Mutations in BRCA1 and BRCA2 in Early-Onset and Familial Afro-Colombian Patients with Breast Cancer.

BACKGROUND: Inherited mutations in the breast cancer susceptibility genes BRCA1 and BRCA2 (BRCA1/2) confer high risks of breast and ovarian cancer. In Colombian Hispanic families, four common BRCA1/2 founder mutations have previously been identified. Because nothing is known about the contribution of BRCA1/2 germline mutations to early-onset and hereditary breast and/or ovarian cancer in Afro-Colombians, we conducted the first study on 60 patients with early-onset and familial breast cancer in this population. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Screening for the four Colombian founder mutations BRCA1/c.3331_3334delCAAG, BRCA1/c.5123C>A, BRCA2/c.2806_2809delAAAC, and BRCA2/c.1763_1766delATAA was performed using mismatch polymerase chain reaction (PCR) analysis, PCR-based restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis, and qualitative real-time PCR. Mutations were confirmed by direct DNA sequencing. RESULTS: The BRCA1 founder mutation c.5123C>A was identified in one family with breast and ovarian cancer (1/60, 1.7%). Three women were diagnosed with breast cancer, including one with bilateral disease, at the ages of 30, 30/33, and 52 years, and one woman was diagnosed with ovarian cancer at the age of 60 years. CONCLUSION: Our data showed a low prevalence of the BRCA1/2 founder mutations in Colombians of African descent, implying that these mutations should not be recommended for genetic screening programs in the Afro-Colombian population. IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE: Risk reduction intervention programs are needed for women who are found to carry a BRCA1/2 mutation, as is the implementation of prevention programs for patients with inherited breast cancer, to reduce the burden of inherited diseases. With the aim of reducing racial disparities in breast cancer prevention, this study focused on genetic testing and treatment for patients in a minority population with BRCA1/2 mutations.

Accuracy of mammography and clinical breast examination in the implementation of breast cancer screening programs in Colombia.

Most evidence on breast cancer screening accuracy derives from high income countries. We evaluated screening accuracy and factors related to program implementation in Bogota, Colombia. Between 2008 and 2012 participants underwent clinical breast examination (CBE) and mammography. Positive results underwent histological verification. Adherence to screening protocols was analyzed. Sensitivity, specificity, and predictive values were estimated and adjusted by overdiagnosis. Impact of alternative screening algorithms on follow-up was explored, including combined screening tests and modified coding systems for mammography. In total, 7436 women aged 50-69 were enrolled; 400 discontinued and 1003 non-compliant with screening protocols. 23 cancer cases were diagnosed. Mammography sensitivity and specificity were 78.3% (95%CI 77.3-99.3) and 99.4% (95%CI 99.2-99.6). CBE sensitivity was 39.1% (95%CI 37.9-40.3) and specificity 83.4% (95%CI 82.6-84.3). Parallel mammography and CBE showed the highest sensitivity (95.6%) and combined as serial tests the lowest (positive CBE followed by mammography 13.0%). A simplified coding system for mammography (recall/no-recall) had 6.3% of positive results and a minor reduction in specificity compared with standard mammography, but reported the best balance between recall rates and screening protocol compliance. Call-backs had high rates of loss-to-follow-up; thus, alternative screening algorithms might help increase screening compliance and follow-up in low and middle income countries, particularly in populations with poor screening history and low access to health services.

Saturación de oxígeno, respiración periódica y apnea durante el sueño en lactantes de 1 a 4 meses a 3200 metros de altura / Oxygen saturation, periodic breathing, and sleep apnea in infants aged 1-4 months old living at 3200 meters above sea level

Objetivos: describir, en niños de 1-4 meses, a 3200 m de altura, la saturación de oxígeno (SpO2), los índices de apnea y la respiración periódica (RP) durante el sueño. Se realizaron polisomnografías en 18 lactantes sanos. Resultados: las medianas fueron de 87% para la SpO2 y de 7,2% para la RP del tiempo total de sueño. El índice de apnea central tuvo una mediana de 30,5 /hora, que disminuyó a 5,4/hora al descontar las apneas asociadas a RP. El p5 de la SpO2 para niños despiertos fue de 76% y, para niños dormidos, de 66%. Conclusiones: la SpO2 fue inferior a la del nivel del mar y la RP y el índice de apnea central, mayores; al descontar las apneas centrales asociadas a RP. Este último, fue similar a la del nivel del mar. A 3200 m, se requieren puntos diferentes para la SpO2 normal, uno para niños despiertos y otro si están dormidos.

Objectives: To describe, in infants aged 1-4 months old living at 3200 meters above sea level (MASL), oxygen saturation (SpO2), sleep apnea indices, and periodic breathing (PB) during sleep. Polysomnographies were done in 18 healthy infants. Results: The median SpO2 was 87%, and the median PB was 7.2% for the total sleep time. The median central sleep apnea index was 30.5/hour, which decreased to 5.4/hour once sleep apneas associated with PB were excluded. The 5th percentile for SpO2 was 76% among awake infants, and 66% among asleep infants. Conclusions: The SpO2 was lower than that observed at sea level, whereas PB and the central sleep apnea index were higher, once sleep apneas associated with PB were excluded. The latter was similar to that observed at sea level. At 3200 MASL, different cut-off points are required for a normal SpO2, one for infants during the waking state and one for infants during sleep.

Factores que determinan el acceso a servicios de salud mental de la población adulta en Colombia / Determining Factors in the Access to Mental Health Services by the Adult Colombian Population

Resumen Introducción: Tradicionalmente el acceso a servicios de salud mental de las personas con trastornos mentales ha sido limitado, y ello se asocia a variables conductuales, sociales y estructurales. Objetivo: Analizar los factores que determinan el acceso a servicios de salud mental de la población adulta (18 a 44 años) en Colombia, a partir de los resultados obtenidos en la Encuesta Nacional de Salud Mental 2015. Material y métodos: Análisis de variables de acceso a consulta en atención a salud mental para adultos. Se clasificaron las razones de consulta en barreras de acceso por oferta o demanda comportamental. Para el análisis de los factores asociados a acceso a los servicios de salud mental en la población adulta colombiana, se tuvo en cuenta el uso de los servicios de salud en los últimos 12 meses por problemas emocionales, nerviosos o de salud mental y las características demográficas, actividad laboral, afiliación a régimen de seguridad social y variables de estados de salud. Las asociaciones entres estas variables se estimaron mediante modelos bivariables de regresión logística multinomial. Resultados: Se encontraron asociaciones entre residir en áreas rurales, estar casado y padecer una enfermedad crónica con la decisión de consultar al médico o no. Conclusiones: Se deben realizar más estudios que permitan evaluar la situación del acceso a servicios de atención en salud mental, y que permitan encontrar los posibles factores relacionados que limiten al mismo.

Abstract Introduction: Access to mental health services by people with mental disorders has traditionally been limited, and is associated with attitudinal, social, and structural variables. Objective: To analyse the factors that determine access to mental health services by the adult population (18-44 years old) in Colombia, from the results obtained in the 2015 National Mental Health Survey. Material and methods: Analysis of variables of access to attention in mental health care for adults. The reasons for not consulting were classified as barriers of behavioural supply and demand. To analyse the factors associated with access to mental health services in the Colombian adult population, the use of health services in the last 12 months fo emotional, nervous or mental health problems was taken into account, as well as associated variables such as demographic characteristics, occupational activity, affiliation to social security, and health status variables. The relationships between these variables were estimated using bivariate multinomial logistic regression models. Results: Rural residence, being married, and having a chronic disease were associated with the decision to consult or not to consult the doctor. Conclusions: Further studies should be conducted to evaluate the situation as regards mental health care access, as well as to determine the potential factors associated with these limitations.

Prevalencia y factores asociados a trastornos mentales en la población de niños colombianos, Encuesta Nacional de Salud Mental (ENSM) 2015 / Prevalence and Associated Factors of Mental Disorders in Colombian Child Population, the 2015 National Mental Health Survey

Resumen Introducción: La Encuesta Nacional de Salud Mental (ENSM) de 2015 busca profundizar en la realidad de la situación mental de los menores de edad de Colombia, teniendo en cuenta la carga de enfermedad que representan y que algunos trastornos mentales del adulto tienen su origen en la niñez o en la adolescencia, lo cual exige un mayor conocimiento del problema para diseñar intervenciones oportunas y disminuir las complicaciones a largo plazo. Objetivo: Determinar la prevalencia y los factores asociados de los trastornos en los últimos 30 días y los últimos 12 meses. Métodos: Se aplicó la entrevista estructurada Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children (DISCP), que provee diagnósticos del DSM-IV a los cuidadores de niños no institucionalizados de 7-11 años. Se evaluaron los siguientes trastornos: depresión mayor, distimia, ansiedad generalizada, ansiedad de separación, déficit de atención e hiperactividad en sus tres presentaciones (mixto, inatento e hiperactivo), negativista desafiante y de conducta. El instrumento fue asistido por computador. Resultados: Se presentan las prevalencias de los trastornos tanto en los últimos 30 días como en los últimos 12 meses. En general se observa una prevalencia de cualquiera de los trastornos medidos del 3% (intervalo de confianza del 95% [IC95%], 2,2%-4,0%) en los últimos 30 días y del 4,7% (IC95%, 3,6%-6,2%) en los últimos 12 meses. Son más frecuentes en las mujeres. El trastorno por déficit de atención e hiperactividad es el más frecuente (el 2,3 y el 3,0%). Además, los trastornos de la conducta de inicio habitual en la infancia son los más frecuentes en este grupo etario, con prevalencias del 2,5% en los últimos 30 días y el 3,2% en el último año. Se presentan factores de riesgo asociados. Conclusiones: La ENSM de 2015 provee una información sobre la realidad de la situación mental de los niños de Colombia que permitirá diseños de 7-11 añar estrategias de prevención, diagnóstico y tratamiento más apropiados y precisos.

Abstract Introduction: The 2015 National Mental Health Survey aimed to expand our knowledge about the real mental state of children in Colombia, taking into account the fact that most mental disorders in adults begin during childhood or adolescence. It is essential to have an improved knowledge of the magnitude of this issue and to design timely interventions that reduce long term complications. Objective: The aim of the study was to determine the prevalence of the disorders in the last 12 months and 30 days according to the DSM-IV, as well as to collect data about social and demographic variables. Methods: The structured Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children (DISC-P), which provides DSM-IV diagnoses,was applied to carers of non-institutionalised children between 7 and 11 years old. The disorders evaluated included: major depressive disorder, dysthymia, generalised anxiety disorder, separation anxiety disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in its three kinds (mixed, inattentive, and hyperactive), oppositional defiant disorder, and conduct disorder. The instrumentation was computer-assisted. Results: Prevalences of the disorders are present both in the last 30 days and in the last 12 months. In general, there is a prevalence of any of the disorders of 3% (95% CI, 2.2-4.0) in the last 30 days, and 4.7% (95% CI, 3.6-6.2) in the last 12 months. When evaluated individually, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder is the most frequent disorder, with a prevalence of 2.3% and 3.0% in the last 30 days and the last 12 months, respectively. In addition, the disorders that are known to frequently begin during childhood are the most common disorders in the age group studied, with a prevalence of 2.5% in the last 30 days and 3.2% in the last year. Conclusions: The 2015 National Mental Health Survey provides precise information about the real mental situation in children between the ages of 7 and 11 years in Colombia, compared with past epidemiological studies in the country, which were restricted to specific populations. By improving the reliability on knowledge about mental disorders in children, it will be possible to design more appropriate and precise strategies for prevention, diagnosis, and treatment.

Aspectos metodológicos del diseño de muestra para la Encuesta Nacional de Salud Mental 2015 / Methodological Aspects of the Sampling Design for the 2015 National Mental Health Survey

Resumen Introducción: La OMS ha incentivado la creación, implementación y evaluación de políticas relacionadas con la salud mental en todo el mundo. En Colombia, en ese marco e impulsada por el Ministerio de Salud y Protección Social y financiada por Colciencias, se realizó la cuarta Encuesta Nacional de Salud Mental (ENSM IV) usando un diseño observacional de corte transversal. En ese contexto, y de acuerdo con los lineamientos y el diseño demuestra proporcionado por el Ministerio de la Protección Social, se presenta a continuación un resumen de la metodología usada para el diseño muestral. La ENSM IV tuvo como base para su diseño muestral la Muestra Maestra de Hogares para Estudios en Salud del Sistema Nacional de Estudios y Encuestas Poblacionales para Salud, desarrollada e implementada en el año 2013 por el Ministerio de la Protección Social. Métodos: Para este estudio, se incluyó a la población civil no institucionalizada del país. Se consideraron cuatro grupos etarios de interés: niños de 7 a 11 años, adolescentes de 12 a 17 años, personas entre 18 y 44 años y mayores de 44 años. El cálculo del tamaño demuestra se basó en las prevalencias reportadas en otros estudios para los desenlaces de trastornos mentales, depresión, suicidio, morbilidad sentida y uso de alcohol. La selección fue de tipo probabilístico por conglomerados, estratificada y polietápica. Se calcularon los factores de expansión al total poblacional. Resultados: En este estudio se recolectaron 15.351 encuestas completas distribuidas según grupos de edad: 2.727 de 7-11 años; 1.754 de 12-17; 5.889 de 18-44 y 4.981 de = 45 años distribuidos en las 5 regiones: Atlántica, Oriental, Bogotá, Central y Pacífica. Conclusiones: En este estudio, se recolectó un número de encuestas completas suficiente para tener una aproximación bastante precisa a escalas nacional y regional de la salud mental y algunos trastornos y problemas mentales de la población colombiana.

Abstract Introduction: The WHO has encouraged the development, implementation and evaluation of policies related to mental health all over the world. In Colombia, within this framework and promoted by the Ministry of Health and Social Protection, as well as being supported by Colciencias, the fourth National Mental Health Survey (NMHST) was conducted using a observational cross sectional study. According to the context and following the guidelines and sampling design, a summary of the methodology used for this sampling process is presented. The fourth NMHST used the Homes Master Sample for Studies in Health from the National System of Studies and Population Surveys for Health to calculate its sample. This Master Sample was developed and implemented in the year 2013 by the Ministry of Social Protection. Methods: This study included non-institutionalised civilian population divided into four age groups: children 7-11 years, adolescent 12-17 years, 18-44 years and 44 years old or older. The sample size calculation was based on the reported prevalences in other studies for the outcomes of mental disorders, depression, suicide, associated morbidity, and alcohol use. A probabilistic, cluster, stratified and multistage selection process was used. Expansions factors to the total population were calculated. Results: A total of 15,351 completed surveys were collected and were distributed according to the age groups: 2727, 7-11 years, 1754, 12-17 years, 5889, 18-44 years, and 4981, ≥45 years. All the surveys were distributed in five regions: Atlantic, Oriental, Bogotá, Central and Pacific. Conclusions: A sufficient number of surveys were collected in this study to obtain a more precise approximation of the mental problems and disorders at the regional and national level.

Factores de riesgo para bacteriemia por Pseudomonas aeruginosa resistente a carbapenémicos adquirida en un hospital colombiano / Risk factors for hospital-acquired bacteremia due to carbapenem-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa in a Colombian hospital

Introducción. Las bacteriemias por Pseudomonas aeruginosa resistentes a carbapenémicos son un problema de salud pública por las pocas alternativas de tratamiento disponibles, el aumento de la estancia hospitalaria, los costos que genera y el aumento en el riesgo de mortalidad. Objetivo. Evaluar los factores de riesgo de bacteriemia por P. aeruginosa resistente a carbapenémicos adquirida en el Hospital Universitario San Ignacio, durante el periodo comprendido entre enero de 2008 y junio de 2014. Materiales y métodos. Se hizo un estudio de casos y controles. Los casos eran de pacientes que presentaban bacteriemia por P. aeruginosa resistente a carbapenémicos y los controles eran pacientes con P. aeruginosa sensible a este grupo de antibióticos. Se midieron variables como el uso de meropenem o ertapenem, la inmunosupresión y la neoplasia, y se determinaron la mortalidad y el tiempo de estancia hospitalaria. Resultados. Se evaluaron 168 pacientes, 42 casos y 126 controles. En el modelo multivariado se encontraron los siguientes factores de riesgo relacionados con la bacteriemia por P. aeruginosa resistente a carbapenémicos y adquirida en el hospital: uso de nutrición parenteral ( odds ratio , OR=8,28; IC 95% 2,56-26,79; p=0), uso de meropenem (OR=1,15; IC 95% 1,03-1,28; p=0,01) y uso de ciprofloxacina (OR=81,99; IC 95% 1,14-5884; p=0,043). Conclusión. Para el control de la aparición de P. aeruginosa resistente a carbapenémicos, se deben fortalecer los programas de control de antimicrobianos, promover el uso prudente de carbapenémicos y quinolonas, y vigilar el uso adecuado de la nutrición parenteral.

Introduction: Bacteremia due to Pseudomonas aeruginosa resistant to carbapenems is a public health problem due to the limitations it places on therapeutic options, as well as the increased time patients must spend in hospital, costs and the risk of mortality. Objective: To evaluate the risk factors for presentation of bacteremia due to carbapenem-resistant P. aeruginosa acquired in the Hospital Universitario San Ignacio between January 2008 and June 2014. Materials and methods: This was a case control study in which the case patients presented bacteremia due to P. aeruginosa resistant to carbapenems and the control group included patients with P. aeruginosa susceptible to this group of antibiotics. Variables such as the previous use of meropenem and ertapenem, immunosuppression and neoplasia were measured. Mortality and duration of hospital were also described. Results: In all, 168 patients were evaluated, of which 42 were cases and 126 controls. Using a multivariate model, the risk factors related to bacteremia due to carbapenem-resistant P. aeruginosa acquired in hospital were the following: use of parenteral nutrition (OR=8.28; 95% CI: 2.56-26.79; p=0); use of meropenem (OR=1.15; 95% CI: 1.03-1.28; p=0.01); and use of ciprofloxacin (OR=81.99; 95% CI: 1.14-5884; p=0.043). Conclusion: In order to prevent the emergence of carbapenem-resistant P. aeruginosa , antimicrobial control programs should be strengthened by promoting the prudent administration of carbapenems and quinolones. The correct use of parenteral nutrition should also be monitored.

Risk factors for hospital-acquired bacteremia due to carbapenem-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa in a Colombian hospital.

INTRODUCTION: Bacteremia due to Pseudomonas aeruginosa resistant to carbapenems is a public health problem due to the limitations it places on therapeutic options, as well as the increased time patients must spend in hospital, costs and the risk of mortality.  OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the risk factors for presentation of bacteremia due to carbapenem-resistant P. aeruginosa acquired in the Hospital Universitario San Ignacio between January 2008 and June 2014.  MATERIALS AND METHODS: This was a case control study in which the case patients presented bacteremia due to P. aeruginosa resistant to carbapenems and the control group included patients with P. aeruginosa susceptible to this group of antibiotics. Variables such as the previous use of meropenem and ertapenem, immunosuppression and neoplasia were measured. Mortality and duration of hospital were also described.  RESULTS: In all, 168 patients were evaluated, of which 42 were cases and 126 controls. Using a multivariate model, the risk factors related to bacteremia due to carbapenem-resistant P. aeruginosa acquired in hospital were the following: use of parenteral nutrition (OR=8.28; 95% CI: 2.56-26.79; p=0); use of meropenem (OR=1.15; 95% CI: 1.03-1.28; p=0.01); and use of ciprofloxacin (OR=81.99; 95% CI: 1.14-5884; p=0.043).  CONCLUSION: In order to prevent the emergence of carbapenem-resistant P. aeruginosa, antimicrobial control programs should be strengthened by promoting the prudent administration of carbapenems and quinolones. The correct use of parenteral nutrition should also be monitored.

Attitude toward preventive counseling and healthy practices among medical students at a Colombian university.

Unhealthy behaviors of medical students influence their attitudes toward preventive counseling. The burden of chronic diseases is continually growing in developing countries, emphasizing the need for the increased role of general practitioners in preventive counseling. The objective of this study was to describe the effect of medical training on the risk profiles and attitudes of medical students toward preventive counseling in a Colombian university. Students in their first and fifth years of training were surveyed using the "Healthy Doctor = Healthy Patient" questionnaire to assess counseling attitudes; personal practices, such as risky drinking, smoking, inadequate nutrition, and non-compliance with physical activity recommendations; and the university environment. The association among these components was estimated, as well as the effect of the university environment. Risky drinking and smoking decreased from first to fifth year (59.3% vs. 37.1%, P = 0.021 and 31.5% vs. 25.9%, P = 0.51, respectively), whereas inadequate nutrition and non-compliance with physical activity recommendations increased. Physical activity (PA) was associated with positive counseling attitude (ORs: nutrition 7.6; alcohol 5.2; PA 10.6). Areas governed by institutional policies that are emphasized in the curriculum positively affected student practices. PA promoted preventive counseling and healthy lifestyles most effectively. Universities should therefore strengthen their preventive medicine curricula and modify social determinants.

Factores de riesgo para ideación suicida en pacientes con trastorno depresivo en Colombia / Risk Factors for Suicidal Ideation in Patients with Depressive Disorders in Colombia

Introducción: La ideación suicida es un factor de mal pronóstico en depresión por el riesgo de intento de suicidio y suicidio consumado; sin embargo, es un aspecto que no ha sido estudiado lo suficiente en la población colombiana. Es importante conocer factores asociados para desarrollar estrategias adecuadas de tratamiento. Objetivo: Identificar factores de riesgo para la ideación suicida en pacientes con diagnóstico de trastorno depresivo mayor entre los 18 y 65 años, en 5 ciudades de Colombia. Método: Se empleó la información de 295 pacientes con diagnóstico de trastorno depresivo mayor que participaron en el Estudio de Carga Económica de la Depresión en Colombia. La asociación de variables clínicas y psicosociales con la ideación suicida se evaluó por medio de modelos multinivel. Resultados: El sexo femenino fue un factor asociado con un menor riesgo de ideación suicida. Los factores asociados con ideación suicida incluyen desempleo, consumo de cigarrillo y de alcohol en los últimos 30 días, percepción de la salud mental como regular o mala, diagnóstico de depresión doble, tratamiento intrahospitalario, bajos ingresos y haber sufrido una gran crisis financiera en los últimos 2 años. Conclusiones: La ideación suicida es altamente prevalente en pacientes con trastorno depresivo mayor. Dentro de los factores de riesgo para ideación suicida se identifican elementos clínico como psicosocial que deben ser abordados con especial cuidado en pacientes con este diagnóstico al momento de hacer una evaluación de riesgo.

Introduction: Suicidal ideation is a poor prognostic factor in patients with depression, due to the risk of suicide attempt or completed suicide. However, it is a relatively unexplored aspect in the Colombian population. It is important to identify the associated factors in order to develop appropriate treatment strategies. Objective: To identify risk factors for suicidal ideation in patients with major depressive disorder between 18 and 65 years in 5 Colombian cities. Methods: Data from 295 patients diagnosed with major depressive disorder were used from the Study of the Economic Burden of Depression in Colombia. The association between the clinical and psychosocial variables with the presence of suicidal ideation was assessed using two-level hierarchical models. Results: Female sex was a factor associated with a lower risk of suicidal ideation. Factors associated with the presence of suicidal ideation include unemployment, smoking and alcohol use in the past 30 days, mental health perceived as fair or poor, diagnosis of double depression, inpatient treatment, low income, unemployment, and a major financial crisis in the last 2 years. Conclusions: Suicidal ideation is highly prevalent in patients with major depressive disorder. Risk factors associated with both the clinical and psychosocial domain must be carefully evaluated during risk assessment of patients with this diagnosis.

Impacto de las facultades de medicina y de los estudiantes sobre los resultados en la prueba nacional de calidad de la educación superior (SABER PRO) / Impact of medical schools and students on the results of the national test on the quality of higher education (SABER PRO)

Introducción: Los resultados de las pruebas SABER PRO de medicina tienen un alto impacto en la comunidad académica a nivel de estudiante y de universidad, y son empleados como indicadores de fortalezas y debilidades de los procesos de formación. La amplia variabilidad de los resultados entre universidades y entre estudiantes dentro de las universidades hace necesario estudiar qué posibles variables están asociadas con el desempeño en estas pruebas. Objetivo: Analizarla relación entre las variables a nivel de las universidades y las variables a nivel de estudiante de medicina con el desempeño en las pruebas SABER PRO de estudiantes de medicina. Materiales y métodos: Se empleó la información de 4498 estudiantes de medicina evaluados en las pruebas SABER PRO 2009 y de las 40 facultades de medicina a las que pertenecían; mediante el uso de modelos jerárquicos de dos niveles se evaluó la asociación de las características de estudiantes y universidades con el puntaje obtenido en la prueba. Resultados: El puntaje promedio por universidades de la prueba SABER PRO 2009 para estudiantes de medicina fue 100,4, con un rango entre 84,3 y 110,8 puntos. La variabilidad de los puntajes en la prueba fue explicada en un 29% por las diferencias entre universidades. Conclusiones: Las universidades oficiales y las facultades de medicina que cuentan con hospitales universitarios propios tienen en promedio mejores desempeños. Sin embargo, la oferta de programas de especialización médica se asocia con menores puntajes.

Introduction: The results of the SABER PRO medical test have considerable impact on theaca-demic community. They are used as indicators of strengths and weaknesses of the education processes for both the student and the university. The wide variability of the results among different universities and students within the same university requires an analysis of the potential variables associated with the performance in these tests. Objective: To analyze the relationship of the inter-university variables and the inter-medical students variables against the performance on the SABER PRO tests. Materials and Methods: The information used was from 4498 medical students evaluated through the SABER PRO 2009 tests and of 40 schools of medicine the students belonged to. The association between the characteristics of the students and universities and the test scores obtained were evaluated using two-level hierarchical models. Results: The average score in the SABER PRO test per university for medical students was 100.4, with a range between 84.3 and 110.8 points. The variability of the test scores was accounted for in 29% of the cases by the inter-university differences. Conclusions: The public universities and the schools of medicine that have their own teaching hospital have better performance in average. However, the offer of medical specialization programs is associated with lower scores.

[Risk Factors for Suicidal Ideation in Patients with Depressive Disorders in Colombia]. / Factores de riesgo para ideación suicida en pacientes con trastorno depresivo en Colombia.

INTRODUCTION: Suicidal ideation is a poor prognostic factor in patients with depression, due to the risk of suicide attempt or completed suicide. However, it is a relatively unexplored aspect in the Colombian population. It is important to identify the associated factors in order to develop appropriate treatment strategies. OBJECTIVE: To identify risk factors for suicidal ideation in patients with major depressive disorder between 18 and 65 years in 5 Colombian cities. METHODS: Data from 295 patients diagnosed with major depressive disorder were used from the Study of the Economic Burden of Depression in Colombia. The association between the clinical and psychosocial variables with the presence of suicidal ideation was assessed using two-level hierarchical models. RESULTS: Female sex was a factor associated with a lower risk of suicidal ideation. Factors associated with the presence of suicidal ideation include unemployment, smoking and alcohol use in the past 30 days, mental health perceived as fair or poor, diagnosis of double depression, inpatient treatment, low income, unemployment, and a major financial crisis in the last 2 years. CONCLUSIONS: Suicidal ideation is highly prevalent in patients with major depressive disorder. Risk factors associated with both the clinical and psychosocial domain must be carefully evaluated during risk assessment of patients with this diagnosis.